iReasearch学术科研网

摘要：Corpus-based approaches to researching metaphor use in business English have become increasingly prevalent, but metaphor use in the genre of mission statements has received little attention. Using a self-built corpus with the help of the corpus tool Wmatrix, we compared metaphor use as a discursive and cognitive strategy in the mission statements of Chinese and US companies from a cognitive sociolinguistic perspective, focusing on three conventional conceptual metaphors in business discourse: BRANDS ARE PEOPLE, BUSINESS IS COOPERATION, and BUSINESS IS COMPETITION. The use of the source domains of these conceptual metaphors was found to differ significantly in the mission statements of Chinese and US companies, thus revealing differences in the underlying corporate identities and ideologies. Chinese corporations, which tend to describe themselves as energetic leaders and strong competitors, are more competition-oriented, whereas US corporations, which tend to project themselves as ethical and responsible community members, are more cooperation-oriented. The findings of this comparative study can shed light on how Chinese companies build their brand images and thus lead to a better understanding of changing national image of China. [Copyright The American University; published by Elsevier Ltd.]

摘要：Although it has existed for many decades in the national curriculum of U.S. higher education, the study of languages for business purposes has lacked a more serviceable and academically communal name -- a more rigorous toponymic identity -- by which to identify itself as a theory-based field of scholarship. The intention here is to propose for consideration a name modification for an existing field and provide some reflections regarding its evolution, theory, and method. In keeping with the rise of interdisciplines in other "studies" programs, business language's empirically definable domain of inquiry, pedagogy, and curriculum development should more appropriately be known as Business Language Studies (BLS). Further consideration of intrinsic theory is strongly encouraged to complement the extensive work already done in extrinsic and applied BLS, given that the development of methods and methodology has far outstripped theoretical considerations per se, the latter of which are now warranted to anchor the field more adequately in U.S. higher education. It is time for greater attention to be focused on the articulation of a broader, more systematic, theory-based BLS research agenda that breaks new ground and provides additional insights into the decisive roles of language and culture in a highly competitive global economy. Adapted from the source document

摘要：After the United States emerged as the major world economic leader following World War II, language curricula for specific purposes in international business were put into practice at the college and university levels. This article documents the work of the major players in the development of coursework and materials for business languages for specific purposes (LSP) designed for instruction of the more commonly taught languages (CTLs) in the United States. The article also describes the more recent implementation of LSP curricula in the less commonly taught languages (LCTLs), such as Japanese and Chinese, and the various federal grants that aided in the development of instruction in these languages. The impact of the Centers for International Business Education and Research (CIBERs) and the positive effects of the Proficiency Guidelines (1986) and the Standards for Foreign Language Learning in the 21st Century (2006), both developed and supported by the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL), provide a deeper explanation for the increased number of LCTLs currently being taught. Also described are the obstacles to continued implementation of these efforts and the need both for expansion of these efforts to precollege levels and for more theoretically-based research in the field. Adapted from the source document

摘要：This introduction will provide a thematic overview of the major issues raised by Grosse and Voght (1991), "The Evolution of Languages for Specific Purposes in the United States," and the contributions in this Focus Issue that address those issues from a 2011 perspective. It will also explore contemporary (largely praxis-oriented) languages for specific purposes (LSP) in the United States within a global LSP context that has historically evidenced strong connections between theory and practice. Points of comparison between LSP practiced in the United States and abroad include the rationale for LSP, curricula/programs innovations, professional infrastructure, researchers/practitioners, theoretical bases for research, and research topics and outlets for publication. Then follows a discussion of the challenges to LSP research (e.g., establishing norms of various workplace interactions, data collection, creation of assessment tools, lack of LSP practitioners and researchers with second language acquisition [SLA] training), and future directions for the growth of LSP as an interdiscipline in the United States and for SLA and foreign language pedagogical research that would utilize data from LSP classroom and experiential settings in both domestic and international contexts. The introduction concludes with a discussion of LSP and community service learning as preparation for the workforce and for lifelong language learning. Adapted from the source document

摘要：Community service learning (CSL) is a type of experiential learning that blends specific course content with real-world applications and ties them together through structured reflection. It is an ideal pedagogy for 21st-century language for specific purposes (LSP) programs. This article frames that argument around sociocultural theory, moves to a discussion of existing models, materials, and research, and describes the relevance of CSL and LSP to the contexts of higher education, communities beyond campus, and professional workplaces. Challenges to the implementation of CSL and LSP programs include resistance to interdisciplinary work, increasing dependence on income-generating models, and historical lack of campus-community engagement. The article concludes with a description of current needs and priorities, such as the development of models and standards for CSL and LSP, as well as an agenda for advancing the disciplines within institutions of higher education. Adapted from the source document

摘要：This article reports the results of a national survey of LSP offerings in U.S. higher education conducted during 2011. The survey updates one carried out by Christine U/ber-Grosse and Geoffrey M. Voght in 1990. The data provide: (a) a profile of institutions that offer LSP; (b) an overview of the number, type, level, and enrollment in LSP courses; (c) perceptions about the attitudes of chairs (and departments) toward these courses; (d) a prioritization of the reasons for adding or discontinuing LSP courses; (e) partnerships with other professional units; (f) a measure of the growth of the field with projections for the future; (g) offerings beyond the course level (degree tracks, minors, certificates); and (h) the tenure status and primary fields of specialization of LSP instructors. The data show that while the overall offerings of LSP have remained relatively stable at 62%, the sophistication and variety of offerings have become deeper and more focused in response to broader needs. LSP is solidly established as another curricular option, beside literature, cultural studies, and linguistics, in institutions where students demand it, thus providing the students who are motivated to enter these fields with valuable applied skills in both language and cultural understanding. Adapted from the source document

摘要：A growing body of literature suggests that language proficiency in the main language of the destination country is one of the most significant factors in the integration of immigrants. This study examines the overall differences in U.S. and Canadian settlement policy, using the provision of language courses as a specific example of the ways in which adult immigrants are integrated into the host society. Eleven Haitian women in both countries were interviewed to compare the way in which participants accessed key settlement information and services. The findings reveal that Canadian-based participants were much more likely to cite professional institutions ("formal facilitators") for referrals, whereas U.S.-based participants were more likely to learn from "informal facilitators." The findings also highlight differences in access and completion rates of language classes. Implications for how national settlement policy affects individual immigrants and their language acquisition are analyzed in the discussion. Adapted from the source document

摘要：The authors introduce this special issue of Language Testing, which focuses on critical issues surrounding test development and practices related to the No Child Left Behind Act -- the most wide-sweeping educational reform effort in the United States. Adapted from the source document

摘要：Assessing Comprehension and Communication in English State-to-State for English Language Learners (ACCESS for ELLS), a large-scale, high-stakes, standards-based, and criterion-referenced language proficiency test developed by the World-Class Instructional Design and Assessment (WIDA) Consortium and administered in US-based K-12 classrooms, is reviewed. Fox notes that ACCESS for ELLS is distinguished from other No Child Left Behind language proficiency tests is (1) the size of the consortium of states using the test, which has grown to 24; (2) the number of resources to situate the test within pedagogical practice; and (3) the care with which WIDA has attempted to systematically align the test with proficiency standards and classroom practice. Adapted from the source document

摘要：The Standards for Foreign Language Learning in the 21st Century (SFLL) (National Standards in Foreign Language Education Project [NSFLEP]), originally published in 1996, were envisioned by many as the panacea for providing a new and exciting direction for foreign language education in the United States. The perceived impact of these National K-16 Student Standards has been witnessed throughout more than a decade by scholarly works that have acknowledged their role as 'a veritable change agent' (Sharpley-Whiting 1999: 84), 'a vision for foreign language education in the new century' (Allen 2002: 518), and, more recently, as 'a blueprint and framework for change' (Terry 2009: 17). The research that has been done on the Standards since their inception has attempted to provide concrete ways for the field to embrace this new framework and thereby realize a Standards-based curriculum and perhaps even revolutionize language education. This work has consisted largely of (1) implementational research (both with and without experimental design) that proposes specific strategies for addressing the Standards in planning, teaching, and assessment (Schwartz & Kavanaugh 1997; Abbott & Lear 2010); (2) survey research that analyzes self-reported information regarding teachers' pedagogical beliefs about the Standards and ways in which they claim to be addressing Standards in their classrooms (Allen 2002; ACTFL 2011), and (3) White papers that disseminate opinions and insights by leaders in the field regarding the impact that the Standards are having in areas such as language instruction, curriculum and course design, and educational policy (Sharpley-Whiting 1999; Donato 2009; Glisan 2010). Adapted from the source document

摘要：American Sign Language (ASL) has become a very popular language in high schools, colleges, and universities throughout the U.S., due, in part, to the growing number of schools that allow students to take the language in order to fulfill a foreign or general language requirement. Within the past couple decades, the number of students enrolled in ASL classes has increased dramatically, and there are likely more instructors of ASL at the present time than ever before. ASL and spoken language instruction are similar in some aspects; however, there are also differences between the two (e.g., modality differences involving visual rather than auditory perception and processing, no commonly used writing system in ASL, and the socio-cultural history of deaf-hearing relations). In spite of these differences, minimal research has been done on ASL learning and classroom pedagogy-especially in recent years. This article reports on studies that have been performed recently and it also suggests various themes for future research. In particular, three main areas of research are proposed: the possible role of the socio-political history of the Deaf community in which ASL teaching is situated, linguistic differences between signed and spoken languages, and the use of video and computer-based technologies. Adapted from the source document

摘要：This study examines the Spanish use of students and teachers at a US two-way immersion school. Students and teachers from Grades 1, 3, and 8 (5-6-year-olds, 7-8-years-olds, and 12-13-year-olds, respectively) were observed and interviewed, and students completed questionnaires to determine what factors influenced their language of choice and their divergence from Spanish when it was the language of instruction. Although students showed an overall preference for English, particularly in interactions with peers, findings indicate that students' language background, culturally relevant teaching activities, teacher language use, and students' sensitivity to others' need for language accommodation influenced their use of Spanish with peers. [Reprinted by permission of Sage Publications Ltd., copyright holder.]

摘要：This article serves as the introduction to this special issue of Language Teaching Research on content-based language teaching (CBLT). The article first provides an illustrative overview of the myriad contexts in which CBLT has been implemented and then homes in on the five studies comprising the special issue, each conducted in a distinct instructional setting: two-way Spanish-English immersion in the USA, English-medium 'nature and society' lessons taught at a middle school in China, English-medium math and science classes in Malaysian high schools, English-medium history classes in high schools in Spain, and 'sheltered instruction' classes for English language learners in US schools. In spite of such divergent contexts, the five studies converge to underscore the pivotal role played by teachers in CBLT and the concomitant need for professional development to support them in meeting some of the challenges specific to CBLT. [Reprinted by permission of Sage Publications Ltd., copyright holder.]

摘要：We present results of 2006 and 2008 replications of the 2000 General Social Survey (GSS), which included nine questions on languages other than English (LOEs) spoken (Robinson, Rivers, & Brecht, 2006). In 2000, 26% claimed they could speak another language, with 10% saying they could speak it "very well." In 2000, foreign language speakers were younger, graduate educated, and of "other" races, living in large cities. Spanish (51%), French (15%), and German (9%) were the most common LOEs spoken. More strikingly, we saw no change in the 10% of school learners of LOEs who claimed to speak the language "very well." We examine the stubborn stability of these results in light of the investments made in LOE programs for national security purposes, and contrast these investments with countervailing pressures on the educational system that limit LOE programs. We note that the arguments for expanding LOE programs, such as language and national security, or the concept of a "world-class" well-rounded education, have at best an attenuated impact on U.S. capacity in LOEs. Potential directions for mobilizing the diverse stakeholders in LOEs are presented. Adapted from the source document

摘要：Three trends affecting language teaching in the United States -- a growing awareness and application of the Standards for Foreign Language Learning (2006), an increase in the number of people who speak non-English languages at home, and a greater emphasis on service learning in secondary and postsecondary education -- have contributed to a proliferation of service learning programs in which college students learning a "foreign" language earn credits while engaging in a service project in a community of speakers of the target language. Leeman highlights "a need for critical analysis of the underlying assumptions and the ideological as well as the material impact of such programs." Adapted from the source document

摘要：This is a qualitative study of normative English speakers who speak English as a lingua franca (ELF) in their graduate student dormitory in the United States, a community of practice (Wegner, 2004) comprised almost entirely of second language users. Using a sequential analysis (Koshik, 2002; Markee, 2000; Sacks, Schegloff, & Jefferson, 1974; Schegloff, Koshik, Jacoby, & Olsher, 2002), the study investigates how these ELF speakers successfully manage their intercultural communication through accommodation strategies (e.g., Jenkins, 2000, 2006) used to address differences in pronunciation and familiarity with a range of ELF speech styles. Drawing on my own experience as a member of this community, I investigate how speakers display equality and legitimacy as English language users in the ELF community in face-to-face interactions when they negotiate understanding in spite of their different accents. ELF speakers exhibit a wide variety of pronunciations as a result of first language cross-linguistic influence, and those phonological differences may hamper intercultural communication, more than any other linguistic feature. For this reason, I have chosen to focus on phonological issues for this study. I argue that sequential analysis of the interactions among speakers of English as a lingua franca may provide useful examples of successful communication among these groups. Data from such analysis should be included in English language teaching as a model of successful interaction strategies directed toward students who will face these situations. The analysis of this ELF data will also be useful as a model for the study of other languages that are often used as lingua francas. Adapted from the source document

摘要：The English Language Proficiency Assessment (ELPA) is used in the state of Michigan in the United States to fulfill government-mandated No Child Left Behind (NCLB) requirements. The test is used to promote and monitor achievement in English language learning in schools that receive federal NCLB funding. The goal of the project discussed here was to evaluate the perceived effectiveness of the ELPA and to see if those perceptions could meaningfully contribute to a broad concept of the test's validity. This was done by asking teachers and test administrators their views on the ELPA directly after its administration. Two hundred and sixty-seven administrators took a survey with closed and open-ended questions that aimed to tap into the consequential dimensions of test validity. An exploratory factor analysis identified five factors relating to the participants' perceptions of the ELPA. Analysis of variance results revealed that educators at schools with lower concentrations of English language learners reported significantly more problems in administering the ELPA. Three themes (the test's appropriateness, impacts, and administration) emerged from an analysis of qualitative data. This article discusses these results not only as a means of better understanding the ELPA, but also to contribute to larger-scale discussions about consequential validity and standardized tests of English language proficiency. It recommends that broadly defined validity data be used to improve large-scale assessment programs such as those mandated by NCLB. Adapted from the source document